Linking words: conjunctions and conjunctive adverbs
Linking words connect ideas within or between sentences. Coordinating conjunctions (and, but, so, because) join two clauses inside one sentence with a comma before them; conjunctive adverbs (however, therefore, moreover) link separate sentences and need a semicolon or full stop before them, plus a comma after. Mixing up the punctuation each requires is one of the most common linking-word errors.
Which one do I need?
Which linking word?
Every answer at a glance
and
Join the ideas with and inside one sentence. Put a comma before it when both sides are full clauses with their own subject.
The scheme cut traffic in the centre, and it made the streets safer for cyclists.
moreover / furthermore / in addition
These are conjunctive adverbs: a full stop or semicolon before them and a comma after. A comma alone before them is a comma splice.
Remote work saves commuting time. In addition, it lowers office costs.
for example / for instance
These start a full sentence, or follow a semicolon, and take a comma after them.
Some food travels thousands of miles. For example, many supermarkets sell green beans from Kenya.
such as + noun(s)
Such as goes straight before a noun or a short list inside the sentence; it cannot introduce a full clause.
Renewable sources such as wind and solar now supply a third of the country's power.
despite / in spite of + noun or -ing
They take a noun or an -ing form, never a full clause, and despite never takes of. Before a clause, use although.
In spite of living abroad for years, she still speaks her first language at home.
although / even though + clause
These take a subject and a verb, at the start or in the middle of the sentence. Don't add but as well: one linker is enough.
Although the flat is small, it is close to the university.
but (comma before)
But joins two full clauses inside one sentence, with a comma before it. Never pair it with although or however.
The exam was difficult, but most candidates finished on time.
However, + new sentence
However is a conjunctive adverb, so it cannot join clauses with a comma. Put a full stop or semicolon before it and a comma after.
Online courses are cheaper. However, many students miss contact with their teachers.
because / since / as + clause
These take a full clause. The clause can open the sentence, with a comma after it. Don't add so as well.
Because rents are so high, many graduates still live with their parents.
because of / due to + noun
Before a noun phrase, add of: because of the traffic. Because on its own needs a subject and a verb.
Many trains were delayed because of the heavy snow.
so (comma before)
So joins the result to the cause inside one sentence, with a comma before it. Don't start the sentence with because as well.
The library closes at six, so I revise at home in the evenings.
therefore / as a result / consequently
These are conjunctive adverbs: a full stop or semicolon before, a comma after. A comma alone before them makes a comma splice.
Fuel prices doubled; as a result, more people started cycling to work.
How to use linking words: conjunctions and conjunctive adverbs
Coordinating conjunctions: and, but, so, because, or
Coordinating conjunctions join two complete clauses inside a single sentence, and a comma goes before the conjunction when both sides are full clauses with their own subject and verb: 'I was tired, so I went to bed early.'
If the second part isn't a full clause (just a verb or object shared with the first clause) no comma is needed: 'I was tired and went to bed early' has one subject shared by both verbs, so the comma disappears.
- The presentation went well, but the questions afterwards were tough.two full clauses → comma before but
- She finished the report and sent it before lunch.one subject, two verbs → no comma
- It started raining so we moved the party indoors.→ It started raining, so we moved the party indoors; two full clauses need a comma before so
Conjunctive adverbs: however, therefore, moreover, nevertheless
Conjunctive adverbs (however, therefore, moreover, nevertheless, furthermore, consequently) connect the meaning of two sentences, but grammatically they belong to the second sentence only, not to both. This means a comma alone can't join the two clauses; you need a semicolon or a full stop before the conjunctive adverb, and a comma right after it.
Joining two full clauses with just a comma and a conjunctive adverb produces a comma splice, one of the most common punctuation errors at intermediate level, and one examiners notice quickly.
- The flight was delayed; however, we still made our connection.semicolon before, comma after
- The flight was delayed. However, we still made our connection.full stop before is equally correct
- The flight was delayed, however, we still made our connection.a comma alone can't join two full clauses here → comma splice
Coordination vs conjunctive adverbs: which punctuation?
The safest way to avoid comma splices is to sort every linking word into one of these two groups first, then apply its fixed punctuation pattern automatically; the meaning of the sentence never changes which punctuation is required.
| Pattern | Example |
|---|---|
| Clause, coordinating conjunction clause. | I was tired, so I went to bed early. |
| Clause; conjunctive adverb, clause. | I was tired; therefore, I went to bed early. |
| Clause. Conjunctive adverb, clause. | I was tired. Therefore, I went to bed early. |
| Wrong: clause, conjunctive adverb, clause. (comma splice) | I was tired, therefore, I went to bed early. (wrong) |
Choosing the right linking word for the relationship
Once the punctuation pattern is automatic, choose the specific word based on the logical relationship between the two ideas: addition, contrast, result, or reason. Coordinating conjunctions and conjunctive adverbs both come in versions of each type, which is why the two lists below line up.
One frequent slip is doubling up two linking words that express the same relationship in one sentence ('although… but…' or 'because… so…') when English only needs one of the pair.
| Relationship | Coordinating conjunction | Conjunctive adverb |
|---|---|---|
| Addition | and | moreover, furthermore, in addition |
| Contrast | but | however, nevertheless, on the other hand |
| Result | so | therefore, as a result, consequently |
| Reason | because (subordinator) | — |
Common mistakes with linking words: conjunctions and conjunctive adverbs
Find what is wrong in each one, then open it to check.
1I was tired, however I went to bed early.What's wrong? Show the fix
I was tired; however, I went to bed early.
'However' is a conjunctive adverb, so it needs a semicolon or full stop before it, not a comma.
2It was raining, therefore we cancelled the picnic.What's wrong? Show the fix
It was raining; therefore, we cancelled the picnic.
A comma alone can't join two full clauses around a conjunctive adverb; use a semicolon (or a full stop) instead.
3Although it was raining, but we still went for a walk.What's wrong? Show the fix
Although it was raining, we still went for a walk.
Don't pair 'although' with 'but' in the same sentence; 'although' already signals the contrast on its own.
4Because he studies hard, so he passed the exam.What's wrong? Show the fix
Because he studies hard, he passed the exam.
Don't pair 'because' with 'so' in the same sentence; choose one connector to show the reason-result relationship.
5She moved to Berlin, moreover she got a new job.What's wrong? Show the fix
She moved to Berlin; moreover, she got a new job.
'Moreover' is a conjunctive adverb and needs a semicolon or full stop before it, plus a comma after.
6I don't like coffee, but however I drink it every morning.What's wrong? Show the fix
I don't like coffee; however, I drink it every morning.
Don't combine 'but' and 'however'; pick one linking word, and punctuate it correctly.
7The traffic was terrible therefore, we arrived late.What's wrong? Show the fix
The traffic was terrible; therefore, we arrived late.
'Therefore' needs a semicolon or full stop before it; the comma alone before it is missing punctuation, not extra.
Practise
Write your own
Write a sentence of your own with linking words: conjunctions and conjunctive adverbs, about you, your studies or your town.
Linking words: conjunctions and conjunctive adverbs in IELTS
Speaking
- In spoken English, punctuation isn't heard, but the underlying structure still matters; pausing naturally where a semicolon or full stop would go, before saying 'however' or 'therefore', makes complex answers sound controlled rather than run-on.
- Overusing conjunctive adverbs in Part 3 (starting every sentence with 'moreover' or 'furthermore') can sound mechanical; mixing them with simple 'and' and 'but' is more natural and still shows range.
Writing
- Comma splices with 'however' and 'therefore' are one of the most common Task 2 punctuation errors; examiners marking Grammatical Range and Accuracy notice this immediately, since it's a rule with no exceptions.
- A well-placed conjunctive adverb ('Furthermore, this trend has accelerated since 2015') is exactly the kind of cohesive device that separates Band 6 from Band 7 writing, provided the punctuation around it is correct.